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Геномът (26) (Автобиография на един биологичен вид в 23 глави)

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Chromosome 1

The idea that the gene and indeed life itself consists of digital information is found in Richard Dawkins’s River out of Eden (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995) and in Jeremy Campbell’s Grammatical man (Allen Lane, 1983). An excellent account of the debates that still rage about the origin of life is found in Paul Davies’s The fifth miracle (Penguin, 1998). For more detailed information on the RNA world, see Gesteland, R. F. and Atkins, J. F. (eds) (1993). The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.

1. Darwin, E. (1794). Zoonomia: or the laws of organic life. Vol. II, p. 244. Third edition (1801). J. Johnson, London.

2. Campbell, J. (1983). Grammatical man: information, entropy, language and life. Alien Lane, London.

3. Schrodinger, E. (1967). What is life? Mind and matter. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

4. Quoted in Judson, H. F. (1979). The eighth day of creation. Jonathan Cape, London.

5. Hodges, A. (1997). Turing. Phoenix, London.

6. Campbell, J. (1983). Grammatical man: information, entropy, language and life. Alien Lane, London.

7. Joyce, G. F. (1989). RNA evolution and the origins of life. Nature 338: 217–24; Unrau, P. J. and Bartel, D. P. (1998). RNA catalysed nucleotide synthesis. Nature 395: 260–63.

8. Gesteland, R. F. and Atkins, J. F. (eds) (1993). The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.

9. Gold, T. (1992). The deep, hot biosphere. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 89: 6045–49; Gold, T. (1997). An unexplored habitat for life in the universe? American Scientist 85: 408–11

10. Woese, C. (1998). The universal ancestor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 95: 6854–9.

11. Poole, A. M., Jeffares, D.C. and Penny, D. (1998). The path from the RNA world. Journal of Molecular Evolution 46: 1–17; Jeffares, D. C., Poole, A. M. and Penny, D. (1998). Relics from the RNA world. Journal of Molecular Evolution 46: 18–36.

Chromosome 2

The story of human evolution from an ape ancestor has been told and retold many times. Good recent accounts include: N. T. Boaz’s Eco homo (Basic Books, 1997), Alan Walker and Pat Shipman’s The wisdom of bones (Phoenix, 1996), Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin’s Origins reconsidered (Little, Brown, 1992) and Don Johanson and Blake Edgar’s magnificently illustrated From Lucy to language (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996).

1. Kottler, M. J. (1974). From 48 to 46: cytological technique, preconception, and the counting of human chromosomes. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 48: 465–502.

2. Young, J. Z. (1950). The life of vertebrates. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

3. Arnason, U., Gullberg, A. and Janke, A. (1998). Molecular timing of primate divergences as estimated by two non-primate calibration points. Journal of Molecular Evolution 47: 718–27.

4. Huxley, T. H. (1863/1901). Man’s place in nature and other anthropological essays p. 153. Macmillan, London.

5. Rogers, A. and Jorde, R. B. (1995). Genetic evidence and modern human origins. Human Biology 67: 1–36.

6. Boaz, N. T. (1997). Eco homo. Basic Books, New York.

7. Walker, A. and Shipman, P. (1996). The wisdom of bones. Phoenix, London.

8. Ridley, M. (1996). The origins of virtue. Viking, London.

Chromosome 3

There are many accounts of the history of genetics, of which the best is Horace Judson’s The eighth day of creation (Jonathan Cape, London, 1979; reprinted by Penguin, 1995). A good account of Mendel’s life is found in a novel by Simon Mawer: Mendel’s dwarf (Doubleday, 1997).

1. Beam, A. G. and Miller, E. D. (1979). Archibald Garrod and the development of the concept of inborn errors of metabolism. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 53: 315–28; Childs, B. (1970). Sir Archibald Garrod’s conception of chemical individuality: a modern appreciation. New England Journal of Medicine 282: 71–7; Garrod, A. (1909). Inborn errors of metabolism. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

2. Mendel, G. (1865). Versuche uber Pflanzen-Hybriden. Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brunn 4: 3–47. English translation published in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society Vol. 26 (1901).

3. Quoted in Fisher, R. A. (1930). The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

4. Bateson, W. (1909). Mendel’s principles of heredity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

5. Miescher is quoted in Bodmer, W. and McKie, R. (1994). The book of man. Little, Brown, London.

6. Dawkins, R. (1995). River out of Eden. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.

7. Hayes, B. (1998). The invention of the genetic code. American Scientist 86: 8–14.

8. Scazzocchio, C. (1997). Alkaptonuria: from humans to moulds and back. Trends in Genetics 13: 125–7; Femandez-Canon, J. M. and Penalva, M. A. (1995). Homogentisate dioxygenase gene cloned in Aspergillus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92: 9132–6.

Chromosome 4

For those concerned about inherited disorders such as Huntington’s disease, the writings of Nancy and Alice Wexler, detailed in the notes below, are essential reading. Stephen Thomas’s Genetic risk (Pelican, 1986) is a very accessible guide.

1. Thomas, S. (1986). Genetic risk. Pelican, London.

2. Gusella, J. E, McNeil, S., Persichetti, E, Srinidhi, J., Novelletto, A., Bird, E., Faber, P., Vonsattel, J.-P., Myers, R. H. and MacDonald, M. E. (1996). Huntington’s disease. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 61: 615–26.

3. Huntington, G. (1872). On chorea. Medical and Surgical Reporter 26: 317–21.

4. Wexler, N. (1992). Clairvoyance and caution: repercussions from the Human Genome Project. In The code of codes (ed. D. Kevles and L. Hood), pp. 211–43. Harvard University Press.

5. Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group (1993). A novel gene containing a trinucleotide repeat that is expanded and unstable on Huntington’s disease chromosomes. Cell 72: 971–83.

6. Goldberg, Y. P. et al. (1996). Cleavage of huntingtin by apopain, a proapoptotic cysteine protease, is modulated by the polyglutamine tract. Nature Genetics 13: 442–9; DiFiglia, M., Sapp, E., Chase, K. Q, Davies, S. W., Bates, G. P., Vonsattel, J. P. and Aronin, N. (1997). Aggregation of huntingtin in neuronal intranuclear inclusions and dystrophic neurites in brain. Science 277: 1990–93.

7. Kakiuza, A. (1998). Protein precipitation: a common etiology in neurodegenerative disorders? Trends in genetics 14: 398–402.

8. Bat, Q, Kimmel, M. and Axelrod, D. E. (1997). Computer simulation of expansions of DNA triplet repeats in the fragile-X syndrome and Huntington’s disease. Journal of Theoretical Biology 188: 53–67.

9. Schweitzer, J. K. and Livingston, D. M. (1997). Destabilisation of CAG trinucleotide repeat tracts by mismatch repair mutations in yeast. Human Molecular Genetics 6: 349–55.

10. Mangiarini, L. (1997). Instability of highly expanded CAG repeats in mice transgenic for the Huntington’s disease mutation. Nature Genetics 15: 197–200; Bates, G. P., Mangiarini, L., Mahal, A. and Davies, S. W. (1997). Transgenic models of Huntington’s disease. Human Molecular Genetics 6: 1633–7.

11. Chong, S. S. et al. (1997). Contribution of DNA sequence and GAG size to mutation frequencies of intermediate alleles for Huntington’s disease: evidence from single sperm analyses. Human Molecular Genetics 6: 301–10.

12. Wexler, N. S. (1992). The Tiresias complex: Huntington’s disease as a paradigm of testing for late-onset disorders. FASEB Journal 6: 2820–25.

13. Wexler, A. (1995). Mapping fate. University of California Press, Los Angeles.

Chromosome 5

One of the best books about gene hunting is William Cookson’s The gene hunters: adventures in the genome jungle (Aurum Press, 1994). Cookson is one of my main sources of information on asthma genes.

1. Hamilton, G. (1998). Let them eat dirt. New Scientist 18 July 1998: 26–31; Rook, G. A. W. and Stanford, J. L. (1998). Give us this day our daily germs. Immunology Today 19: 113–16.

2. Cookson, W. (1994). The gene hunters: adventures in the genome jungle. Aurum Press, London.

3. Marsh, D. G. et al. (1994). Linkage analysis of IL4 and other chromosome 5q31.1 markers and total serum immunoglobulin-E concentrations. Science 264: 1152–6.

4. Martinez, F. D. et al. (1997). Association between genetic polymorphism of the beta-2-adrenoceptor and response to albuterol in children with or without a history of wheezing. Journal of Clinical Investigation 100: 3184–8.

Chromosome 6

The story of Robert Plomin’s search for genes that influence intelligence will be told in a forthcoming book by Rosalind Arden. Plomin’s textbook on Behavioral genetics is an especially readable introduction to the field (third edition, W. H. Freeman, 1997). Stephen Jay Gould’s Mismeasure of man (Norton, 1981) is a good account of the early history of eugenics and IQ. Lawrence Wright’s Twins: genes, environment and the mystery of identity (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997) is a delightful read.

1. Chomey, M. J., Chomey, K., Seese, N., Owen, M. J., Daniels, J., McGuffin, P., Thompson, L. A., Detterman, D. K., Benbow, C., Lubinski, D., Eley, T. and Plomin, R. (1998). A quantitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability in children. Psychological Science 9: 1–8.

2. Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty. Macmillan, London.

3. Goddard, H. H. (1920), quoted in Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. Norton, New York.

4. Neisser, U. et al. (1996). Intelligence: knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist 51: 77–101.

5. Philpott, M. (1996). Genetic determinism. In Tarn, H. (ed.), Punishment, excuses and moral development. Avebury, Aldershot.

6. Wright, L. (1997). Twins: genes, environment and the mystery of identity. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.

7. Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990s: development and individual differences. Child Development 63: 1–19.

8. Daniels, M., Devlin, B. and Roeder, K. (1997). Of genes and IQ. In Devlin, B., Fienberg, S. E., Resnick, D. P. and Roeder, K. (eds), Intelligence, genes and success. Copernicus, New York.

9. Herrnstein, R. J. and Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. The Free Press, New York.

10. Haier, R. et al. (1992). Intelligence and changes in regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate following learning. Intelligence 16: 415–26.

11. Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. Norton, New York.

12. Furlow, F. B., Armijo-Prewitt, T, Gangestead, S. W. and Thornhill, R. (1997). Fluctuating asymmetry and psychometric intelligence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 264: 823–9.

13. Neisser, U. (1997). Rising scores on intelligence tests. American Scientist 85: 440–47.

Chromosome 7

Evolutionary psychology, the theme of this chapter, is explored in several books, including Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby’s The adapted mind (Oxford University Press, 1992), Robert Wright’s The moral animal (Pantheon, 1994), Steven Pinker’s How the mind works (Penguin, 1998) and my own The red queen (Viking, 1993). The origin of human language is explored in Steven Pinker’s The language instinct (Penguin, 1994) and Terence Deacon’s The symbolic species (Penguin, 1997).

1. For the death of Freudianism: Wolf, T. (1997). Sorry but your soul just died. The Independent on Sunday, 2 February 1997. For the death of Meadism: Freeman, D. (1983). Margaret Mead and Samoa: the making and unmaking of an anthropological myth. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; Freeman, D. (1997). Frans Boas and „The flower of heaven“. Penguin, London. For the death of behaviourism: Harlow, H. F., Harlow, M. K. and Suomi, S. J. (1971). From thought to therapy: lessons from a primate laboratory. American Scientist 59: 538–49.

2. Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct the new science of language and mind. Penguin, London.

3. Dale, P. S., Simonoff, E., Bishop, D. V. M., Eley, T. C., Oliver, B., Price, T. S., Purcell, S., Stevenson, J. and Plomin, R. (1998). Genetic influence on language delay in two-year-old children. Nature Neuroscience 1: 324–8; Paulesu, E. and Mehler, J. (1998). Right on in sign language. Nature 392: 233–4.

4. Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.

5. Bishop, D. V. M., North, T. and Donlan, C. (1995). Genetic basis of specific language impairment: evidence from a twin study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 31: 56–71.

6. Fisher, S. E., Vargha-Khadem, F., Watkins, K. E., Monaco, A. P. and Pembrey, M. E. (1998). Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature Genetics 18: 168–70.

7. Gopnik, M. (1990). Feature-blind grammar and dysphasia. Nature 344: 715.

8. Fletcher, P. (1990). Speech and language deficits. Nature 346: 226; Vargha-Khadem, F. and Passingham, R. E. (1990). Speech and language deficits. Nature 346: 226.

9. Gopnik, M., Dalakis, J., Fukuda, S. E., Fukuda, S. and Kehayia, E. (1996). Genetic language impairment: unruly grammars. In Runciman, W. G., Maynard Smith, J. and Dunbar, R. I. M. (eds), Evolution of social behaviour patterns in primates and man, pp. 223^49. Oxford University Press, Oxford; Gopnik, M. (ed.) (1997). The inheritance and innateness of grammars. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

10. Gopnik, M. and Goad, H. (1997). What underlies inflectional error patterns in genetic dysphasia? Journal of Neurolinguistics 10: 109–38; Gopnik, M. (1999). Familial language impairment: more English evidence. Folia Phonetica et Logopaedia 51: in press. Муrnа Gopnik, e-mail correspondence with the author, 1998.

11. Associated Press, 8 May 1997; Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct the new science of language and mind. Penguin, London.

12. Mineka, S. and Cook, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear._ Journal of Experimental Psychology, General_ 122: 23–38.

13. Dawkins, R. (1986). The blind watchmaker. Longman, Essex.

Chromosomes X and Y

The best place to find out more about intragenomic conflict is in Michael Majerus, Bill Amos and Gregory Hurst’s textbook Evolution: the four billion year war (Longman, 1996) and W. D. Hamilton’s Narrow roads of gene land (W. H. Freeman, 1995). For the studies that led to the conclusion that homosexuality was partly genetic, see Dean Hamer and Peter Copeland’s The science of desire (Simon and Schuster, 1995) and Chandler Burr’s A separate creation: how biology makes us gay (Bantam Press, 1996).

1. Amos, W. and Harwood, J. (1998). Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 353: 177–86.

2. Rice, W. R. and Holland, B. (1997). The enemies within: intergenomic conflict, interlocus contest evolution (ICE), and the intraspecific Red Queen. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41: 1–10.

3. Majerus, M., Amos, W. and Hurst, G. (1996). Evolution: the four billion year war. Longman, Essex.

4. Swain, A., Narvaez, V., Burgoyne, P., Camerino, G. and Lovell-Badge, R. (1998). DaxI antagonises sry action in mammalian sex determination. Nature 391: 761–7.

5. Hamilton, W. D. (1967). Extraordinary sex ratios. Science 156: 477–88.

6. Amos, W. and Harwood, J. (1998). Factors affecting levels of genetic diversity in natural populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 353: 177–86.

7. Rice, W. R. (1992). Sexually antagonistic genes: experimental evidence. Science 256: 1436–9.

8. Haig, D. (1993). Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy. Quarterly Review of Biology 68: 495–531.

9. Holland, B. and Rice, W. R. (1998). Chase-away sexual selection: antagonistic seduction versus resistance. Evolution 52: 1–7.

10. Rice, W. R. and Holland, B. (1997). The enemies within: intergenomic conflict, interlocus contest evolution (ICE), and the intraspecific Red Queen. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41: 1–10.

11. Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N. et al. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 261: 321–7; Pillard, R. C. and Weinrich, J. D. (1986). Evidence of familial nature of male homosexuality._ Archives of General Psychiatry_ 43: 808–12.

12. Bailey, J. M. and Pillard, R. C. (1991). A genetic study of male sexual orientation. Archives of General Psychiatry 48: 1089–96; Bailey, J. M. and Pillard, R. C. (1995). Genetics of human sexual orientation. Annual Review of Sex Research 6: 126–50.

13. Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N. et al. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 261: 321–7.

14. Bailey,]. M., Pillard, R. C., Dawood, K., Miller, M. B., Trivedi, S., Farrer, L. A. and Murphy, R. L.; in press. A family history study of male sexual orientation: no evidence for X-linked transmission. Behaviour Genetics.

15. Blanchard, R. (1997). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual versus heterosexual males and females. Annual Review of Sex Research 8: 27–67.

16. Blanchard, R. and Klassen, P. (1997). H-Y antigen and homosexuality in men. Journal of Theoretical Biology 185: 373–8; Arthur, B. L, Jallon, J.-M., Caflisch, B., Choffat, Y. and Nothiger, R. (1998). Sexual behaviour in Drosophila is irreversibly programmed during a critical period. Current Biology 8: 1187–90.

17. Hamilton, W. D. (1995). Narrow roads of gene land, Vol. 1. W. H. Freeman, Basingstoke.

Chromosome 8

Again, one of the best sources on mobile genetic elements is the textbook by Michael Majerus, Bill Amos and Gregory Hurst: Evolution: the four billion year war (Longman, 1996). A good account of the invention of genetic fingerprinting is in Walter Bodmer and Robin McKie’s The book of man (Little, Brown, 1994). Sperm competition theory is explored in Tim Birkhead and Anders Moller’s Sperm competition in birds (Academic Press, 1992).

1. Susan Blackmore explained this trick in her article The power of the meme memeв in the Skeptic Vol. 5 no. 2, p. 45.

2. Kazazian, H. H. and Moran, J. V. (1998). The impact of Li retrotransposons on the human genome. Nature Genetics 19: 19–24.

3. Casane, D., Boissinot, S., Chang, В. H. J., Shimmin, L. C. and Li, W. H. (1997). Mutation pattern variation among regions of the primate genome. Journal of Molecular Evolution 45: 216–26.

4. Doolittle, W. F. and Sapienza, C. (1980). Selfish genes, the phenotype paradigm and genome evolution. Nature 284: 601–3; Orgel, L. E. and Crick, F. H. C. (1980). Selfish DNA: the ultimate parasite. Nature 284: 604–7.

5. McClintock, B. (1951). Chromosome organisation and genic expression. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 16: 13–47.

6. Yoder, J. A., Walsh, C. P. and Bestor, T. H. (1997). Cytosine methylation and the ecology of intragenomic parasites. Trends in Genetics 13: 335–40; Garrick, D., Fiering, S., Martin, D. I. K. and Whitelaw, E. (1998). Repeat-induced gene silencing in mammals. Nature Genetics 18: 56–9.

7. Jeffreys, A. J., Wilson, V. and Thein, S. L. (1985). Hypervariable ˜minisatellite" regions in human DNA. Nature 314: 67–73.

8. Reilly, P. R. and Page, D. C. (1998). We’re off to see the genome. Nature Genetics 20: 15–17; New Scientist 28 February 1998, p. 20.

9. See Daily Telegraph, 14 July 1998, and Sunday Times, 19 July 1998.

10. Ridley, M. (1993). The Red Queen: sex and the evolution of human nature. Viking, London.

Chromosome 9

Randy Nesse and George Williams’s Evolution and healing (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995) is the best introduction to Darwinian medicine and the interplay between genes and pathogens.

1. Crow, J. F. (1993). Felix Bernstein and the first human marker locus. Genetics 133: 4–7.

2. Yamomoto, F., Clausen, H., White, T., Marken, S. and Hakomori, S. (1990). Molecular genetic basis of the histo-blood group ABO system. Nature 345: 229–33.

3. Dean, A. M. (1998). The molecular anatomy of an ancient adaptive event. American Scientist 86: 26–37.

4. Gilbert, S. C, Plebanski, M., Gupta, S., Morris, J., Cox, M., Aidoo, M., Kwiatowski, D., Greenwood, В. M., Whittle, H. C. and Hill, A. V. S. (1998). Association of malaria parasite population structure, HLA and immunological antagonism. Science 279:1173–7; also A. Hill, personal communication.

5. Pier, G. B. et al. (1998). Salmonella typhi uses CFTR to enter intestinal epithelial cells. Nature 393: 79–82.

6. Hill, A. V. S. (1996). Genetics of infectious disease resistance. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 6: 348–53.

7. Ridley, M. (1997). Disease. Phoenix, London.

8. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. and Cavalli-Sforza, F. (1995). The great human diasporas. Addison Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.

9. Wederkind, C. and Fiiri, S. (1997). Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simple heterogeneity? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 264: 1471–9.

10. Hamilton, W. D. (1990). Memes of Haldane and Jayakar in a theory of sex. Journal of Genetics 69: 17–32.

Chromosome 10

The tricky subject of psychoneuroimmunology is explored by Paul Martin’s The sickening mind (Harper Collins, 1997).

1. Martin, P. (1997). The sickening mind: brain, behaviour, immunity and disease. Harper Collins, London.

2. Becker, J. B., Breedlove, M. S. and Crews, D. (1992). Behavioral endocrinology. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

3. Marmot, M. G., Davey Smith, G., Stansfield, S., Patel, C, North, F. and Head, J. (1991). Health inequalities among British civil servants: the Whitehall II study. Lancet 337: 1387–93.

4. Sapolsky, R. M. (1997). The trouble with testosterone and other essays on the biology of the human predicament. Touchstone Press, New York.

5. Folstad, I. and Karter, A. J. (1992). Parasites, bright males and the immunocompetence handicap. American Naturalist 139: 603–22.

6. Zuk, M. (1992). The role of parasites in sexual selection: current evidence and future directions. Advances in the Study of Behavior 21: 39–68.

Chromosome 11

Dean Hamer has both done the research and written the books on personality genetics and the search for genetic markers that correlate with personality differences. His book, with Peter Copeland, is Living with our genes (Doubleday, 1998).

1. Hamer, D. and Copeland, P. (1998). Living with our genes. Doubleday, New York.

2. Efran, J. S., Greene, M. A. and Gordon, D. E. (1998). Lessons of the new genetics. Family Therapy Networker 22 (March/April 1998): 26–41.

3. Kagan, J. (1994). Galen’s prophecy: temperament in human nature. Basic Books, New York.

4. Wurtman, R. J. and Wurtman, J. J. (1994). Carbohydrates and depression. In Masters, R. D. and McGuire, M. T. (eds), The neurotransmitter revolution, pp. 96–109. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville.

5. Kaplan, J. R., Fontenot, M. B., Manuck, S. B. and Muldoon, M. F. (1996). Influence of dietary lipids on agonistic and affiliative behavior in Macaca fascicularis. American Journal of Primatology 38: 333–47.

6. Raleigh, M. J. and McGuire, M. T. (1994). Serotonin, aggression and violence in vervet monkeys. In Masters, R. D. and McGuire, M. T. (eds), The neurotransmitter revolution, pp. 129–45. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville.

Chromosome 12

The story of homeotic genes and the way in which they have opened up the study of embryology is told in two recent textbooks: Principles of development by Lewis Wolpert (with Rosa Beddington, Jeremy Brockes, Thomas Jessell, Peter Lawrence and Elliot Meyerowitz) (Oxford University Press, 1998), and Cells, embryos and evolution by John Gerhart and Marc Kirschner (Blackwell, 1997).

1. Bateson, W. (1894). Materials for the study of variation. Macmillan, London.

2. Tautz, D. and Schmid, K. J. (1998). From genes to individuals: developmental genes and the generation of the phenotype. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 353: 231–40.

3. Niisslein-Volhard, C. and Wieschaus, E. (1980). Mutations affecting segment number and polarity in Drosophila. Nature 287: 795–801.

4. McGinnis, W., Garber, R. L., Wirz, J., Kuriowa, A. and Gehring, W. J. (1984). A homologous protein coding sequence in Drosophila homeotic genes and its conservation in other metazoans. Cell 37: 403–8; Scott, M. and Weiner, A. J. (1984). Structural relationships among genes that control development: sequence homology between the Antennapedia, Ultrabithorax and fushi tarazu loci of Drosophila. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 81: 4115–9.

5. Arendt, D. and Nubler-Jung, K. (1994). Inversion of the dorso-ventral axis? Nature 371: 26.

6. Sharman, A. C. and Brand, M. (1998). Evolution and homology of the nervous system: cross-phylum rescues of otd/Otx genes. Trends in Genetics 14: 211–14.

7. Duboule, D. (1995). Vertebrate hox genes and proliferation — an alternative pathway to homeosis. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 5: 525–8; Krumlauf, R. (1995). Hox genes in vertebrate development. Cell 78: 191–201. 8. Zimmer, C. (1998). At the water’s edge. Free Press, New York.

Chromosome 13

The geography of genes is explored in Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza and Francesco Cavalli-Sforza’s The great human diasporas (Addison Wesley, 1995); some of the same material is also covered in Jared Diamond’s Guns, germs and steel (Jonathan Cape, 1997).

1. Cavalli-Sforza, L. (1998). The DNA revolution in population genetics. Trends in Genetics 14: 60–65.

2. Intriguingly, the genetic evidence generally points to a far more rapid migration rate for women’s genes than men’s (comparing maternally inherited mitochondria with paternally inherited Y chromosomes) — perhaps eight times as high. This is partly because in human beings, as in other apes, it is generally females that leave, or are abducted from, their native group when they mate. Jensen, M. (1998). All about Adam. New Scientist, 11 July 1998: 35–9.

3. Reported in HMS Beagle: The Biomednet Magazine (www.biomednet.com/ hmsbeagle), issue 20, November 1997.

4. Holden, C. and Mace, R. (1997). Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults. Human Biology 69: 605–28.

Chromosome 14

Two good books on ageing are Steven Austad’s Why we age (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) and Tom Kirkwood’s Time of our lives (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999).

1. Slagboom, P. E., Droog, S. and Boomsma, D. I. (1994). Genetic determination of telomere size in humans: a twin study of three age groups. American Journal of Human Genetics 55: 876–82.

2. Lingner, J., Hughes, T. R., Shevchenko, A., Mann, M., Lundblad, V. and Cech, T. R. (1997). Reverse transcriptase motifs in the catalytic subunit of telomerase. Science 276: 561–7.

3. Clark, M. S. and Wall, W. J. (1996). Chromosomes: the complex code. Chapman and Hall, London.

4. Harrington, L., McPhail, T., Маг, V., Zhou, W., Oulton, R., Bass, M. B., Aruda, I. and Robinson, M. Q (1997). A mammalian telomerase-associated protein. Science 215: 973–7; Saito, T., Matsuda, Y., Suzuki, T., Hayashi, A., Yuan, X., Saito, M., Nakayama, J., Hori, T. and Ishikawa, F. (1997). Comparative gene-mapping of the human and mouse TEP-1 genes, which encode one protein component of telomerases. Genomics 46: 46–50.

5. Bodnar, A. G. et al. (1998). Extension of life-span by introduction of telomerase into normal human cells. Science 279: 349–52.

6. Niida, H., Matsumoto, T., Satoh, H., Shiwa, M., Tokutake, Y., Furuichi, Y. and Shinkai, Y. (1998). Severe growth defect in mouse cells lacking the telomerase RNA component. Nature Genetics 19: 203–6.

7. Chang, E. and Harley, C. B. (1995). Telomere length and replicative aging in human vascular tissues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92: 11190–94.

8. Austad, S. (1997). Why we age. John Wiley, New York.

9. Slagboom, P. E., Droog, S. and Boomsma, D. I. (1994). Genetic determination of telomere size in humans: a twin study of three age groups. American Journal of Human Genetics 55: 876–82.

10. Ivanova, R. et al. (1998). HLA-DR alleles display sex-dependent effects on survival and discriminate between individual and familial longevity. Human Molecular Genetics 7: 187–94.

11. The figure of 7,000 genes is given by George Martin, quoted in Austad, S. (1997). Why we age. John Wiley, New York.

12. Feng, J. et al. (1995). The RNA component of human telomerase. Science 269: 1236–41.

Chromosome 15

Wolf Reik and Azim Surani’s Genomic imprinting (Oxford University Press, 1997) is a good collection of essays on the topic of imprinting. Many books explore gender differences including my own The Red Queen (Viking, 1993).

1. Holm, V. et al (1993). Prader-Willi syndrome: consensus diagnostic criteria. Pediatrics 91: 398–401.

2. Angelman, H. (1965). „Puppet“ children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 7: 681–8.

3. McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1984). Completion of mouse embryogenesis requires both the maternal and paternal genomes. Cell 37: 179–83; Barton, S. C, Surami, M. A. H. and Norris, M. L. (1984). Role of paternal and maternal genomes in mouse development. Nature 311: 374–6.

4. Haig, D. and Westoby, M. (1989). Parent-specific gene expression and the triploid endosperm. American Naturalist 134: 147–55.

5. Haig, D. and Graham, C. (1991). Genomic imprinting and the strange case of the insulin-like growth factor II receptor. Cell 64: 1045–6.

6. Dawson, W. (1965). Fertility and size inheritance in a Peromyscus species cross. Evolution 19: 44–5 5; Mestel, R. (1998). The genetic battle of the sexes. Natural History 107: 44–9.

7. Hurst, L. D. and McVean, G. T. (1997). Growth effects of uniparental disomies and the conflict theory of genomic imprinting. Trends in Genetics 13: 436–43; Hurst, L. D. (1997). Evolutionary theories of genomic imprinting. In Reik, W. and Surani, A. (eds), Genomic imprinting, pp. 211–37. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

8. Horsthemke, B. (1997). Imprinting in the Prader-Willi/ Angelman syndrome region on human chromosome 15. In Reik, W. and Surani, A. (eds), Genomic imprinting, pp. 177–90. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

9. Reik, W. and Constancia, M. (1997). Making sense or antisense? Nature 389: 669–71.

10. McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1984). Completion of mouse embryogenesis requires both the maternal and paternal genomes. Cell 37: 179–83.

11. Jaenisch, R. (1997). DNA methylation and imprinting: why bother? Trends in Genetics 13: 323–9.

12. Cassidy, S. B. (1995). Uniparental disomy and genomic imprinting as causes of human genetic disease. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 25, Suppl. 26: 13–20; Kishino, T. and Wagstaff, J. (1998). Genomic organisation of the UBE3A/E6-AP gene and related pseudogenes. Genomics 47: 101–7.

13. Jiang, Y., Tsai, T.-E, Bressler, J. and Beaudet, A. L. (1998). Imprinting in Angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 8: 334–42.

14. Alien, N. D., Logan, K., Lally, G., Drage, D. J., Norris, M. and Keverne, Е. B. (1995). Distribution of pathenogenetic cells in the mouse brain and their influence on brain development and behaviour. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92: 10782–6; Trivers, R. and Burt, A. (in preparation), Kinship and genomic imprinting.

15. Vines, G. (1997). Where did you get your brains? New Scientist, 3 May 1997: 34–9; Lefebvre, L., Viville, S., Barton, S. C, Ishino, E, Keverne, Е. B. and Surani, M. A. (1998). Abnormal maternal behaviour and growth retardation associated with loss of the imprinted gene Mest. Nature Genetics 20: 163–9.

16. Pagel, M. (1999). Mother and father in surprise genetic agreement. Nature 397: 19–20.

17. Skuse, D. H. et al. (1997). Evidence from Turner’s syndrome of an imprinted locus affecting cognitive function. Nature 387: 705–8.

18. Diamond, M. and Sigmundson, H. K. (1997). Sex assignment at birth: long-term review and clinical implications. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 151: 298–304.

Chromosome 16

There are no good popular books on the genetics of learning mechanisms. A good textbook is: M. E Bear, B. W. Connors and M. A. Paradise’s

Neuroscience: exploring the brain (Williams and Wilkins, 1996).

1. Baldwin, J. M. (1896). A new factor in evolution. American Naturalist 30: 441–51, 536–53.

2. Schacher, S., Castelluci, V. F. and Kandel, E. R. (1988). cAMP evokes long-term facilitation in Aplysia neurons that requires new protein synthesis. Science 240: 1667–9.

3. Bailey, C. H., Bartsch, D. and Kandel, E. R. (1996). Towards a molecular definition of long-term memory storage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93: 12445–52.

4. Tully, T., Preat, T., Boynton, S. C. and Del Vecchio, M. (1994). Genetic dissection of consolidated memory in Drosophila. Cell 79: 39–47; Dubnau, J. and Tully, T. (1998). Gene discovery in Drosophila: new insights for learning and memory. Annual Review of Neuroscience 21: 407–44.

5. Silva, A. J., Smith, A. M. and Giese, K. P. (1997). Gene targeting and the biology of learning and memory. Annual Review of Genetics 31: 527–46.

6. Davis, R. L. (1993). Mushroom bodies and Drosophila learning. Neuron 11: 1–14; Grotewiel, M. S., Beck, C. D. Q, Wu, K. H., Zhu, X.-R. and Davis, R. L. (1998). Integrin-mediated short term memory in Drosophila. Nature 391: 455–60.

7. Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., Watkins, K. E., Connelly, A., Van-Paesschen, W. and Mishkin, M. (1997). Differential effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. Science 277: 376–80.

Chromosome 17

The best recent account of cancer research is Robert Weinberg’s One renegade cell (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998).

1. Hakem, R. et al. (1998). Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94: 339–52.

2. Ridley, M. (1996). The origins of virtue. Viking, London; Raff, M. (1998). Cell suicide for beginners. Nature 396: 119–22.

3. Cookson, W. (1994). The gene hunters: adventures in the genome jungle. Aurum Press, London.

4. Sunday Telegraph, 3 May 1998, p. 25.

5. Weinberg, R. (1998). One renegade cell. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.

6. Levine, A. J. (1997). P53, the cellular gatekeeper for growth and division. Cell 88: 323–31.

7. Lowe, S. W. (1995). Cancer therapy and p53. Current Opinion in Oncology 7: 547–53.

8. Hueber, A.O. and Evan, G. I. (1998). Traps to catch unwary oncogenes. Trends in Genetics 14: 364–7.

9. Cook-Deegan, R, (1994). The gene wars: science, politics and the human genome. W. W. Norton, New York.

10. Krakauer, D. C. and Payne, R. J. H. (1997). The evolution of virus-induced apoptosis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 264: 1757–62.

11. Le Grand, Е. K. (1997). An adaptationist view of apoptosis. Quarterly Review of Biology 72: 135–47.

Chromosome 18

Geoff Lyon and Peter Corner’s blow-by-blow account of the development of gene therapy, Altered fates (Norton, 1996) is a good place to start. Eat your genes by Stephen Nottingham (Zed Books, 1998) details the history of plant genetic engineering. Lee Silver’s Remaking Eden (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997) explores the implications of reproductive technologies and genetic engineering in human beings.

1. Verma, I. M. and Somia, N. (1997). Gene therapy — promises, problems and prospects. Nature 389: 239–42.

2. Carter, M. H. (1996). Pioneer Hi-Bred: testing for gene transfers. Harvard Business School Case Study N 9–597–055.

3. Capecchi, M. R. (1989). Altering the genome by homologous recombination. Science 244: 1288–92.

4. First, N. and Thomson, J. (1998). From cows stem therapies? Nature Biotechnology 16: 620–21.

Chromosome 19

The promises and perils of genetic screening have been discussed at great length in many books, articles and reports, but few stand out as essential sources of wisdom. Chandler Burr’s A separate creation: how biology makes us gay (Bantam Press, 1996) is one.

1. Lyon, J. and Gomer, P. (1996). Altered fates. Norton, New York.

2. Eto, M., Watanabe, K. and Makino, I. (1989). Increased frequencies of apolipoprotein E2 and E4 alleles in patients with ischemic heart disease. Clinical Genetics 36: 183–8.

3. Lucotte, G., Loirat, F. and Hazout, S. (1997). Patterns of gradient of apolipoprotein E allele *4 frequencies in western Europe. Human Biology 69: 253–62.

4. Kamboh, M. I. (1995). Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and susceptibility to Alzheimer’s disease. Human Biology 67: 195–215; Flannery, T. (1998). Throwim way leg. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.

5. Cook-Degan, R. (1995)._ The gene wars: science, politics and the human genome._ Norton, New York.

6. Kamboh, M. I. (1995). Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and susceptibility to Alzheimer’s disease. Human Biology 67: 195–215; Corder, Е. H. et al. (1994). Protective effect of apolipoprotein E type 2 allele for late onset Alzheimer disease. Nature Genetics 7: 180–84.

7. Bickeboller, H. et al. (1997). Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: genotypic-specific risks by age and sex. American Journal of Human Genetics 60: 439–46; Payami, H. et al. (1996). Gender difference in apolipoprotein E-associated risk for familial Alzheimer disease: a possible clue to the higher incidence of Alzheimer disease in women. American Journal of Human Genetics 58: 803–11; Tang, M.-X. et al. (1996). Relative risk of Alzheimer disease and age-at-onset distributions, based on APOE genotypes among elderly African Americans, Caucasians and Hispanics in New York City. American Journal of Human Genetics 58: 574–84.

8. Caldicott, F. et al. (1998). Mental disorders and genetics: the ethical context. Nuffield Council on Bioethics, London.

9. Bickeboller, H. et al. (1997). Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: genotypic-specific risks by age and sex. American Journal of Human Genetics 60: 439–46.

10. Maddox, J. (1998). What remains to be discovered. Macmillan, London.

11. Cookson, C. (1998). Markers on the road to avoiding illness. Financial Times, 3 March 1998, p. 18; Schmidt, K. (1998). Just for you. New Scientist, 14 November 1998, p. 32.

12. Wilkie, T. (1996). The people who want to look inside your genes. Guardian, 3 October 1996.

Chromosome 20

The story of prions is exceptionally well told in Rosalind Ridley and Harry Baker’s Fatal protein (Oxford University Press, 1998). I have also drawn on Richard Rhodes’s Deadly feasts (Simon and Schuster, 1997) and Robert Klitzman’s The trembling mountain (Plenum, 1998).

1. Prusiner, S. B. and Scott, M. R. (1997). Genetics of prions. Annual Review of Genetics 31: 139–75.

2. Brown, D. R. et al. (1997). The cellular prion protein binds copper in vivo. Nature 390: 684–7.

3. Prusiner, S. B., Scott, M. R., DeArmand, S. J. and Cohen, F. E. (1998). Prion protein biology. Cell 93: 337–49.

4. Klein, M. A. et al. (1997). A crucial role for B cells in neuroinvasive scrapie. Nature 390: 687–90.

5. Ridley, R. M. and Baker H. F. (1998). Fatal protein. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Chromosome 21

The most thorough history of the eugenics movement, Dan Kevles’s In the name of eugenics (Harvard University Press, 1985) concentrates mostly on America. For the European scene, John Garey’s The intellectuals and the masses (Faber and Faber, 1992) is eye-opening.

1. Hawkins, M. (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American thought. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

2. Kevles, D. (1985). In the name of eugenics. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

3. Paul, D. B. and Spencer, H. G. (1995). The hidden science of eugenics. Nature 374: 302–5.

4. Carey, J. (1992). The intellectuals and the masses. Faber and Faber, London.

5. Anderson, G. (1994). The politics of the mental deficiency act. M. Phil, dissertation, University of Cambridge.

6. Hansard, 29 May 1913.

7. Wells, H. G., Huxley, J. S. and Wells, G. P. (1931). The science of life. Cassell, London.

8. Kealey, T., personal communication; Lindzen, R. (1996). Science and politics: global warming and eugenics. In Hahn, R. W. (ed.), Risks, costs and lives saved, pp. 85–103. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

9. King, D. and Hansen, R. (1999). Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilisation in 1930s Britain. British Journal of Political Science 29: 77–107.

10. Searle, G. R. (1979). Eugenics and politics in Britain in the 1930s. Annals of Political Science 36: 159–69.

11. Kitcher, P. (1996). The lives to come. Simon and Schuster, New York.

12. Quoted in an interview in the Sunday Telegraph, 8 February 1997.

13. Lynn, R. (1996). Dysgenics: genetic deterioration in modern populations. Praeger, Westport, Connecticut.

14. Reported in HMS Beagle. The Biomednet Magazine (www.biomednet.com/ hmsbeagle), issue 20, November 1997.

15. Morton, N. (1998). Hippocratic or hypocritic: birthpangs of an ethical code. Nature Genetics 18: 18; Coghlan, A. (1998). Perfect people’s republic. New Scientist, 24 October 1998, p. 24.

Chromosome 22

The most intelligent book on determinism is Judith Rich Harris’s The nurture assumption (Bloomsbury, 1998). Steven Rose’s Lifelines (Penguin, 1998) makes the opposing case. Dorothy Nelkin and Susan Lindee’s The DNA mystique (Freeman, 1995) is worth a look.

1. Rich Harris, J. (1998). The nurture assumption. Bloomsbury, London.

2. Ehrenreich, B. and McIntosh, J. (1997). The new creationism. Nation, 9 June 1997.

3. Rose, S., Kamin, L. J. and Lewontin, R. C. (1984). Not in our genes. Pantheon, London.

4. Brittan, S. (1998). Essays, moral, political and economic. Hume Papers on Public Policy, Vol. 6, no. 4. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.

5. Reznek, L. (1997). Evil or ill? Justifying the insanity defence. Routledge, London.

6. Wilson, E. Q (1998). Consilience. Little, Brown, New York.

7. Darwin’s views on free will are quoted in Wright, R. (1994). The moral animal. Pantheon, New York.

8. Silver, B. (1998). The ascent of science. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

9. Ayer, A. J. (1954). Philosophical essays. Macmillan, London.

10. Lyndon Eaves, quoted in Wright, L. (1997). Twins: genes, environment and mystery of identity. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.